The Harpsichord

Harpsichord begins very much like an enlarged spinet: with larger case, greater soundboard, more and longer strings. 

   

Spinet 

V.S

Harpsichord

It produces a harsh, raw, nasal and disturbing tone which makes it unsuitable for solo performances. In order to improve or solve this situation, many experiments were conducted such as adding pedals, stops and other devices to mimic other instruments.  

From all these experiments, 4 devices were formulated to solve this problem:-         forte stop: lift dampers-         soft stop: press the dampers on to the strings to stop vibration-         buff stop: to insert soft cloth or leather between the jacks and strings-         shifting stop: shifts entire keyboard

Mechanism

 

Caption: Schematic view of a 2×8” single manual harpsichord. 1) keylever, 2) name batten, 3) name board 4) tuning pins, 5) nut, 6) jack rail, 7) upper registers, 8 ) string, 9) bridge, 10) hitchpin, 11) liner, 12) bentside/tail, 13) boudin, 14) soundboard, 15) gap, 16) upper belly rail, 17) jack, 18) lower belly rail, 19) bottom, 20) rack, 21) guide pin, 22) lower registers, 23) wrestplank, 24) balance pin, 25) keyboard frame. 

Development

Harpsichord makers gradually increased the size of the harpsichord as long as 16 feet. Thin wires were used as the casings were unable to tolerate heaving wires. The quill plectra could not vibrate them as well. They soon realized that long and thin wires produce unmusical tone and hence reduce the size between 8 to 10 feet. They also increased the number of strings to each note to enhance the timbre of the harpsichord.

Venice was the center of its manufacture. At that time its prevailing shape was winglike, similar to that of a grand piano. The square harpsichord, often called spinet, became more common in the late 16th cent., when harpsichord making in the northern countries surpassed that of Italy. Perhaps the greatest craftsmen were the Ruckers family of Antwerp (late 16th–17th cent). By the 1750s, the centre of harpsichord manufacturing has shifted to Paris. The more well-known makers are the ancestors of Elizabeth Claude Jacquet, Jean and Claude Jacquet. They took on the business from the Blanchet family who began making harpsichords since 1689. Hence, the harpsichord was once again modified under the hands of the Parisians. The instrument was standardized to be a two-manual instrument. The lower keyboard contains 2 sets of strings: a set of 8’ and another of 4’. The upper keyboard contains a separate set of 8’ strings. Interestingly, both keyboards, with the use of a coupler, can be made to play together, thus extending the range of the harpsichord. They also used three strings to each note.

    

The Harpsichord – Necessesity to Change

Late in the eighteenth century the piano began its rise, partly because of the differences in mechanics. Harpsichords make sound with jacks that pluck strings. Pianos use hammers that strike strings. Pianos are more robust and powerful and have a greater range of musical possibilities. Rise of the instrumental genre led to greater innovations of the keyboard due to greater ranges of dynamics contrast.

Varying the touch in harpsichord playing does not alter the quality or volume of tone; to provide dynamic variety, octave couplers and various stops that change the tone were introduced. Contrast in volume and in tone color is made easier by the addition of a second keyboard, or manual, found on German harpsichords from the late 16th century and on Italian ones from c.1665. The instrument provided the basic support of virtually all the various combinations of instruments as chamber music and orchestral forms developed. In the 19th century, the harpsichord, which required frequent tuning and replacement of quills, was superseded in general use by the piano. Since the mid-20th century, however, the older instrument has had a revival in popularity. Hence, the harpsichord ‘gave the player no possible opportunity to exercise any artistry’.[1]

 Limitations on the Harpsichord

From the beginning of the sixteenth onwards the harpsichord performed important roles in both domestic and professional musical life. However, by early eighteenth century new musical needs were arising. The composers were making increased use of lyrical melodies demanding dynamic inflection, and also a public performances to a bigger audiences called for instruments with greater volume. This is to achieve the increase of timbre colour to the music. The harpsichord has the great volume required for public performance or in instrumental ensemble. Still, it was limited in its ability to interpret a melodic line by its lack of facility for gradual dynamic variations within the scale. What was sought was a keyboard instrument, producing substantial sound level while allowing players direct control of volume from one note to the next.     

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[1] Alfred Dolge. Piano and their makers. New York: Dover Publications. 1972. Pg 38.

The Piano

Piano is a hybrid invention of the clavichord and harpsichord. It inherited the following features from the formal: independent soundboard, metal strings, hammering the strings to produce sound and the damper. From the harpsichord, it has the wing-formed case (as to grand pianos), three strings to one note, three pedals and the shifting keyboard. 

Inventors

Many inventors had tried incorporating the hammer action into the harpsichord but none succeeded; the first being Marius of Paris in 1716. Subsequently, there were people such as Christofori in 1701, Marius in 1716 and Schroter in 1717 who came up with a totally different mechanism from that of a harpsichord. However, the most perfect invention of the pianoforte should be credited to Bartolomeo Christofori in 1709. In Christofori’s pianoforte, he invented the escapement device, a mechanism that the performer could “through his touch produce a delicate pianissimo and also a strong fortissimo”[1]. 

Christofori’s Piano

 Development

Due the Industrial Revolution in the 1790s to 1890s, tremendous changes were made to the pianoforte due to increased technological resources. High-quality steel for strings and precision casting for production of iron frames are now available. Under Broadwood hands, the piano grew in size and are more robustly constructed. He extended the keyboard range of the piano from 5 octaves to 5 octaves and a 5^th in the 1790; 6 octaves in 1810 and 7 octaves in 1820.  

In 1820, the centre of innovation had shifted to Erard firm of Paris which built pianos used by Chopin and Liszt. In 1821, Sebastian Erard invented the double escapement which permitted a note to be repeated even if the key had not yet risen to its maximum vertical position, a great benefit for rapid playing especially thrills. As revised by Herz in 18540s, the double escapement action ultimately became a standard action for all grand pianos for all manufacturers.  

Erad piano

The other technical innovation to rock the era is the iron frame, also called the eplate. It sits on top of the soundboard, and serves as the primary bulwark against the fork of string tension. The iron frame was the ultimate solution to the problem of structural integrity as stings were made thicker, tenser and more numerous. The iron frame was invented in 1825 in Boston by Alpheus Babcock, culminating earlier trend to use even more iron parts to reinforce the piano. The first iron frame in grand pianos (1840) was the work of the Chickering Firm, at which Babcock was employed.  

Iron Frame

In 1826, Jean Henri Pape introduced hammers covered by compressed felt, which could stand up to harder, softer strings of Broadwood piano. Additionally, Pape was also the first to introduce over-stringing or cross-stringing: the technique of overlapping two vertically slanted bridges instead of one, allowing longer strings to fit within the piano. Henry Steinway was the first to apply this to grand piano in 1859.  It was also during the same time that the piano received its third pedal (the sostenuto pedal) invented by Jean Louis Boisselot in 1844. The pedal was further improved by Steinway in 1874.  Duplex scaling, invented by Theodore Steinway in 1872, permitting parts of the string near the ends to vibrate freely, adding resonance and richness of sound. 

Cross-stringing

 Upright Piano

The first piano invented exists as a ‘grand piano’. The first upright piano was only invented around 1780, 70 years after the grand piano, by Johann Schmidt of Salzburg and revised by John Isaac Hawkins of Philadelphia. However, their inventions and improvements failed as an instrument. The proper upright piano we have today originated from William Southwell of
London and he named it the ‘Cabinet’ piano. It was built and introduced between 1806-7. It has strings arranged vertically on a continuous frame with bridges extended nearly to the floor.  

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[1] Alfred Dolge. Piano and their makers. New York:
Dover Publications. 1972. Pg 47.

Roles of Keyboard in Solo Music ( Baroque & Classical)

BAROQUE 

1. Intabulations: It is also known as intavolaturas, are transcriptions or arrangements of polyphonic ensemble pieces for a keyboard instrument. The capacity for rendering polyphony on an instrument can long be perceived as a principal advantage of keyboard instruments.

There are present in the earliest sources of keyboard music: Buxheim manuscript form the 15^th century. In 16^th century it gave rise to other important genres of keyboard music. It can be found in the 14^th century, like it appeared on the Faenza manuscripts (written ca.1400 and it contains a 14^th century repertory) is the largest: almost half of it consists of intabulations and some of music by important composers of the time (Francesco Landini and Guillaume de Machaut P). It continue to dominate the 15^th century as well especially in the Buxheim manuscript ( ca.1470) The contents of which again comprise primarily intabulations of works by leading composers of the time like John Dunstable. However, it remains dominant to around 1600 and it fell out of use after that.  

2 . Toccata: This term refers to music that consists primarily of elements of figuration, which involves mostly scale passages and arpeggios, often with full chords and sudden and unexpected changes in harmony, tempo, and dynamics. The style seems based on improvisation, emphasizing figurative elements that are well adapted to the keyboard music; referred to as idiomatic, this way of writing exploits a particular instrument’s individual qualities.  

Examples of it can be found in the 16^th century as evidenced by the intonazioni of Andrea Gabrieli (ca.1510-1586) and from England, by John Bull. Like the Prelude from Fitzwilliam Virginal Book – Excerpt. Also, the toccata continued to be as a main form of Italian keyboard music. Like in the first half of the 18^th century we can find toccatas present in the Scarlatti’s music. In addition, the toccata style also appears in French preludes of the 17^th century. Most of these carry on the old tradition without bringing in the elements added by the Italian composers of the latter part of the 16^th century. In Louis Couperin for example, the prelude remained in a small form in a quasi-improvisational manner exhibiting great freedom of rhythm. But Couperin has all notes the same value, so that meter and rhythm are at the discretion of the player.  

3. Dance and Suite: The largest part of the repertory of early keyboard music is related to dance. But dance is not again emphasized in sources of keyboard music until the 16^th century, where we find it particularly in German tabulates. From England, we find dances in the extensive repertory of virginal music, allemandes, correntes, jigs and branles. Other dances of 16^th century include hornpipe and sarabande. In 17^th century dance and dance-related forms, which in some cases are intabulations of lute pieces, dominate the repertory of French keyboard music. The 3 most important composers are Louis Couperin, Chambonnieres and d’Anglebert.  In the 15^th century the practise was to have the slow and dignified bass danse followed by a quick dance in triple time and this custom of linking dances in pairs continued through the 16th century.

Most prominent dances are:

Allemande: moderate duple time

Courante: moderate triple time Sarabande: slow triple time

Gigue: fast compound time usually 6/8

The most important dances are the English suites, French suites and Partitas of Bach’s music.

 4. Dance suite: This form was used as a Harpsichord Suite or as an Orchestral Suite.  It consisted of four standard dances: allemande, courante, sarabande, and gigue. Various optional dances are sometimes added as well as an overture (prelude, sinfonia).  

CLASSICAL 

1. Sonata :  The definition of the sonata should be refined for each historical period. During the Classical era, it refers to an instrumental composition for pianoforte or for other solo instrument with pianoforte accompaniment which was intended for amateur music making. A sonata can range from 2 to 4 movements, each varying in key, mood, and tempo. Emanuel Bach composed sonatas in a three-movement format, fast-slow-fast, that was to become standard for the Classical sonata. However, Beethoven introduced the minuet (later scherzo), as third movement. The last movement of a 3- or 4-movement sonata is often in sonata or rondo form. 

Roles of Keyboard in Chamber Music

The Keyboard in Chamber Works during the Baroque and Classical period

Keyboard music was employed in 3 distinct roles; as leading instrument, in equal partnership with another soloist, or acting as continuo to one or more principal players.

By mid 18^th century, harpsichord was declining in favor of the fortepiano, and this more powerful instrument formed the kernel of a whole series of genres.  In piano trios, it took the lion’s share of the musical material since strings were regarded as merely an accompanist. Piano quartets and quintets also appeared.

Haydn wrote his Piano Trios, Hob XV: 11-13 with a fortepiano in mind. Many composers, including Haydn, wrote for a generic group of keyboard instruments (organ, harpsichord, clavichord, and the new forte-piano) in the 18th century, to attract as many amateur consumers as possible. Haydn’s piano trio Hob XV No. 18 from 1794 belongs to the first set which specifies only the piano (and no other keyboard option).   

The Keyboard in Orchestral Works during the Baroque and Classical period

 The continuo remained important throughout the first half of the 18th century and even in the 19th century a keyboard was often found holding the harmony in orchestral music together. For example, in Mozart’s piano concertos, the composer expected the pianist to play a continuo during the tutti sections as well as the soloist parts. It seems that some of Mozart’s earlier works, such as the concertos K175, K238, K242 and K246 and some of the variations, were composed for harpsichord whereas other works were written with the piano in mind.

Bach developed the keyboard concerto in three distinct steps. First, in 1721, during his tenure as Court Capellmeister at Cöthen, he composed Brandenburg Concerto No.5, the first known keyboard concerto. By writing a daring solo harpsichord part, complete with extravagant first-movement cadenza, and by eliminating the continuo bass in the slow movement, Bach established the standard for the modern keyboard concerto in one bold stroke. Then, in 1726, while composing church music in Leipzig as Kantor of the St. Thomas School, he reworked a number of Cöthen concerto movements as cantata sinfonias with solo organ, thus producing the first organ concertos a full decade before Handel explored the genre.

Composers: J.S. Bach

 

J.S. Bach (1685-1750)

 Country:Germany 

One of the essential elements of Bach’s art as a keyboard composer is the attention he gave, out of respect, not only the differences between organ and harpsichord but also those within the family of string keyboard instruments, of which he used at least four types: harpsichord, clavichord, lute-harpsichord and fortepiano. He is specific about the main kinds of harpsichord in the Clavier-Übung(the first part is for one-manual harpsichord, the second and fourth for a two-manual instrument). One of the earliest manuscript sources refers to the suitability of the E minor suite bwv996 for the lute-harpsichord (‘aufs Lauten Werk’).

Bach took an active interest in J.G. Silbermann’s experiments in developing the fortepiano during the 1730s and 40s. There is reliable testimony that he improvised on several new Silbermann fortepianos of different types in the presence of Frederick the Great in Potsdam in 1747, which makes it possible to regard the three-part ricercar of the Musical Offeringas conceived primarily for this new kind of keyboard instrument.Bach’s harpsichord works were available in Italy, France, Austria and England by 1750, and in view of this it is not surprising that the young Beethoven was schooled in the ‘48’. The growing recognition of the significance of this part of his output was reflected in the first complete edition of the works for harpsichord (begun in Leipzig in 1800 by Hoffmeister & Kühnel and continued by C.F. Peters) in which Forkel, among others, was involved. Concerto for two Harpsichords

• Bach was the first to write for harpsichord concertos with orchestral accompaniment.
• He was also the first to compose concertos for two, three and even four harsichords.
• Some were originally written as solo or double concertos for violin, and onlylater were they arranged to suit the keyboard.
• Both concertos for two harpsichords in C minor and C majordate from middle of Bach’s timein Liepzig.
• The first wasoriginally for violin and oboe in D minor.
• Though instrumentation has been changed, the original violin and onoe parts can be picked out from the right-hand staves of the two harpsichord parts.
• The violin and oboe version is more interesting because both solo instruments offer a contrast in tone which is impossible in keyboard arrangement.
• Nothing is suggested that the C major concerto is an arrangement; it must be intended for harpsichords from the first.
• Bach’s keyboard style prevails throughout.
•  The broadly expanding solo episodes in the fugue show him developing his music with two precisely similar instruments in mind.
• A third concerto, also for two harpsichord is hardly ever played.
• It has an exact transcription of the well-known double violin concerto in D minor.
• The arrangement can never attain the romantic charm of the original.

Composers: C.P.E Bach

 

C.P.E. Bach (1714-1788)

C.P.E. Bach was born in Weimar, Germany on March 8, 1714 as the second surviving son of Johann Sebastian Bach and his first wife Maria Barbara. C.P.E Bach was also the principal composer of the empfindsamer Stil.

Empfindsammer Stil means ‘highly sensitive style’ which is highly expressive as use of the element of surprise with abrupt shifts of harmony, strange modulations, unusual turns of melody, unexpected pauses, changes of texture, and sudden sfz accents.

C.P.E. Bach was the court harpsichordist between “1740—1768” in Berlin. He wrote keyboard works, concertos, symphonies, and numerous choral works.

There are about 170 sonatas for clavichord/harpsichord/fortepiano, and with various other pieces for these instruments, almost reaching up to more then three hundred works.

C.P.E Bach’s last keyboard works mainly focus on three genres important to the empfindsamer Stil—sonata, rondo and fantasia.

C.P.E Bach’s keyboard music has rapid change in mood, broken figures, interrupted continuity, elaborate ornamentation, pregnant pauses, and uncertain, often dissonant harmony.

His teaching in Berlin inspired the writing of his treatise: Versuch über die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen (Vol. I: H.868, Vol. II: H.870) (Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments), the most important Eighteenth Century German language work on the subject.

He died in Hamburg, 1788.

 C.P.E. Bach was to be an appeal for seriousness and commitment on the level of writing appropriate for keyboard and above all on that of expression, in a mythology of ‘northern’ values that was to exist for a long time.

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‘The Age of Mozart and Beethoven’ by Giorgio Pestelli.

C.P.E. Bach and the German harpsichord

Composers: Haydn

Joseph Haydn (March 31 1732 – May 31 1809) 

Country: Hungary-Vienna  As domestic music making was popular during Haydn’s time, his “keyboard music was intended for performance in the home and private salon – and most often by women, for whom the keyboard had become a centerpiece of their education and socialization. He also wrote them as teaching materials for his students. 

Keyboard Sonatas

Haydn’s keyboard sonatas can be categorized into 2 groups: before 1770s and after 1780s. The first group was written for the harpsichord while the later was for the piano.  

 - Before 1780s

Before 1765, Haydn’s keyboard works were inspired by Georg Christoph Wagenseil, the Hofklaviermeister of Hamburg. Sonatas Hob. XVI: 2, 6, 13, 14 and Piano Trios Hob. XV: 34 and 41 are part of this collection.  

Due to the influences of Strum und Drung, there were significant revolutionary changes in Haydn’s sonatas, particularly Hob. XVI: 18-20 and 44-46 which were written around 1766. There were also traces of Bachian style in his sonatas. This is highly attributed to Haydn’s discovery of Bach’s Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments. The Bachian elements include polished and standardized ornaments, varied reprise, and elaborate rhythms.  

There were another set of sonatas, Hob. XVI: 21-26, which were dedicated to Prince Nicolaus. This collection features the recollections of Viennese keyboard divertimento, toccata-like passages as well as dramatic elements from the operas. 

-After 1780s

The first appearance of his first piano sonatas, Op. 30 (Hob. XVI: 35-39, 20), was in 1780 when it was published. This meant that Sonata Hob. XVI: 20 are written for both harpsichord and the piano. It is the first dedication to a female dedicatee, Katharina and Marianna von Auenbrugger. They are salon pianist whom Haydn admired for their keyboard skills. “This collection exemplifies the string for balance – between delight and edification, tradition and innovation, commercial expediency and artistic value, the capacities of amateur and the discrimination of the connoisseur – which would inspire Haydn’s keyboard collections for the next fifteen years.”[1]  Haydn also wrote three short sonatas (Hob. XVI: 40-42) and they were dedicated to Princess Marie Hermenegild Esterhazy. This is also the first set of works that were printed out of Vienna, in Speyer by Bossler. This collection of sonatas is in 2 movements which contains variations and ternary (ABA) form. Dynamics and articulations were also added to showcase the ability of the piano. 

Before 1788, Haydn has always been working with a harpsichord till he purchased a piano from Schanz in October of the same year. Haydn’s personal experiences with the piano itself led him to write Sonatas that demonstrates its unique tone colour and capabilities of dynamic and textural contrasts. Sonata Hob. XVI: 49 was written for this purpose as he autographed on the manuscript ‘per il Forte-piano’. This sonata is also deemed as the “model of the Classical style”[2] Since the time he owned a fortepiano, he explored the abilities of the piano so much to the point that he totally abandoned the harpsichord and was “no longer accustomed to it”[3] as addressed to Maria Anna von Genzinger, the dedicatee of the Hob. XVI: 49, in a letter addressed to her dated 1790. Hence, we can conclude that by 1790, Haydn has completely transited from the harpsichord to the piano. 

Keyboard Trios

We can also see Haydn’s transition in his keyboard trios. He began to pick up composing keyboard trios in 1784 due to public demand. Accompanied keyboard music also grew popular in Vienna by 1785. “The string parts were often markedly simpler than the brilliant keyboard part…and the cello normally doubled the keyboard bass line.”[4] In order to accommodate such brilliance that ought to be displayed at the keyboard, Haydn soon found the limitation of the harpsichord and turned to the piano for its variety of capabilities. The public’s demand and favour towards the accompanied keyboard music also made way for the popularity of the piano.

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[1] Michelle Fillion. “They Keyboard Sonatas and Trios” from The Cambridge Companion to Haydn. UK:Cambridge University Press, 2005. Pg 129.

[2] Michelle Fillion. “They Keyboard Sonatas and Trios” from The Cambridge Companion to Haydn. UK:Cambridge University Press, 2005. Pg 133.

[3] H.C. Robbins Landon (Ed.) The Collected Correspondence and London Noteooks of Joseph Haydn. London: Barrie and Rockliff, 1959. Pg. 106.

[4] Michelle Fillion. “They Keyboard Sonatas and Trios” from The Cambridge Companion to Haydn. UK:Cambridge University Press, 2005. Pg 130.

Beethoven and His Pianos

 As early as 1802, nearly 150 piano-makers in and aroundVienna were eager to make a piano for Beethoven (without charge) but he was only willing to pay for one. Beethoven’s favorite keyboard instruments were the Broadway (introduced in 1820) and Graf pianos (1831, four years after the composer death). In his youth, he played mostly on the clavichord, harpsichord and organ. However at his adult age, pianofortes were common which include those made by Stein, Bohm, Erard, Schantz, and Streicher.  Due to advance technology, pianos at Beethoven era had different sound due to different instrumental timbre and variant resonance. The instruments had hammers covered with layers of leather, not pad of felt. The keys were different and light in touch to the fingers. The key beds were shallower than those of today’s piano and produce different kind of tone which keep the nature and nuances of sound which Beethoven and his contemporaries heard. Hammerklavier Sonata was composed with the clear implication being that it was intended for performance on just such an instrument.

Graf piano

Graf piano was made in Vienna. It’s light and speedy keyboard action that permitted a rapid executive of noted while producing clear, sharp tones. Most of the late 18^th and 19^th century Viennese pianos Beethoven played were rather delicate instruments.However, due to his standard, the instruments were rather flimsy. His finest piano didn’t have advantage of metal bracing, necessary feature of today’s instruments. It is said that Beethoven have played the piano in a manner never before heard or conceived; His nearly-orchestral conception and music demanded a new nobility and breadth of utterance which called into new element and dramatic emphasis. He often damaged the piano such as snapping the strings and splintered the hammers due to the manner of his playing which was forceful.  

Broadwood Piano

The Broadwood Piano is made in London by Broadwood & Sons (founded in 1728). It was sent as a gift to Beethoven. He was pleased to with its penetrating sound and it’s full, broad time, both of with surpassed that of the comparatively feeble Viennese instruments he had had to used until then. English counterpart had a more powerful sonority and afforded a solid, robust and rich resonance. Thomas Broadwood had arranged to have the name BEETHOVEN inlaid in ebony in the name board above the keys, directly under the music rack. Composer held it with high regard and refuses to let anyone tune it. He kept the instrument as long as he lived.Tone was characterized by a transparent bass, an almost chime-like treble, and a greater sound volume, and it afforded Beethoven some wider, more extended musical possibilities because of its keyboard range. Many late sonatas work were composed (including Hammerklavier Sonata of 1818, his 29^th work in that form) while Beethoven had the piano. Beethoven had a divided pedal: the bass and the treble registers could therefore be pedaled separately, giving greater clarity and brilliance to the music played on it. He was quite deaf when he had the piano. After Beethoven’s death, music publisher, Spina, passed on the instrument to Franz Liszt and kept it in Weimar where it remained until his death in 1886. It is now kept at the Hungarian
National Museum in Budapest where it remains until today. 

Conclusion Due to his fierce nature and unpredictable mood-swing, Beethoven would need to find a piano which was durable because of his forceful playing which would affect his playing. His talent was so great that he needs to experiment with musical ideas into the piano and this need a good tone and bigger range piano.  “Beethoven research is a field that has been plowed so often, each furrow having been turned so many times, that expecting to make a major ‘discovery’ about him would be comparable to finding an ancient Greek vase lying loose somewhere n the Parthenon” by George Marek, in his book Beethoven: Biography of a Genius.   

Impact of the Piano invention on the Society

Society and Music 

Vienna being rich, full of nobility and great centre of commerce and money lending, they could afford many material things which include buying a piano. Leopold I bought harpsichord in every room of his palace, convenient to try out new ideas if it suddenly occur to him. The number of concerts held also increase after 1780. Music is a good lubricant of advancement, a social balm. Newly rich people feel that by cultivating musical interest and talents allows them to feel more high class. It’s because of the rich people that give to society wealth to upgrade on music, encourage the genius of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert to unfold their talents.

Piano becomes Business 

Nanette (Stein’s daughter) and her brother continue making piano and most Viennese bought them. Factory production do not affect the individual craftsman makers. A piano maker who expands into a factory ceases to be a craftsman is called a businessman. There is a practice of paying commissions to the musicians so that the piano makers themselves can earn more money. Piano makers will advertise by borrowing a famous or well connected musician name like Beethoven to present their instrument.

 Music Business Grows Wide and Shallow 

Music bought to play on pianofortes grew after 1790; as the quantity grew greater, the average quality grew poorer. Finest music need skill and cultivation but very few people are cultivated and skill. They only interested in making more money. As time advance, the music for piano tends to be almost monopolizing all publication and performance. Piano is the easiest of all instruments to play a little, the perfect tool for person of small talent and ambition. Intonation of the piano is up to the tuner and there little problem on tone production (nothing like the hazard of embouchure or bowing attack); any imbecile can press down a light level. Piano can make both melody and harmony (easy chords are easy to play on it) or it can play on it’s own without having much problem of co-ordination with other players. Piano is a good looking ‘furniture’ and expensive to be proud of.

Bibliography and Links

Rowland, David. A History of Pianoforte Pedalling. UK: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1993. 

Dolge, Alfred. Piano and their makers. New York: Dover Publications. 1972.  

Wright, Craig M. and Bryan Simms. Music in Western Civilization. Volume I – Antiquity through the Baroque. Belmont, Califonia: Thomson-Schirmer, 2006. Pg. 314-317.

Harrison, Bernard. Haydn’s Keyboard Music Studies in Performance Practice. Clarendon Press. 1997. 

Rowland, David. Early Keyboard Instruments – A Practical Guide. Cambridge University Press. 2001. 

Dearling, Robert. Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments. “Keyboard Instruments and Ensembles”. Chelsea House Publishers.

 Loesser, Arthur. Men, Women And Pianos, A Social History. New York: Dover Publications, 1990

Dane, Jeffrey. ‘Pianos of Beethoven and Other Famous Composers.’ from Frugalfun.com. 07 February 2007. <http://www.frugalfun.com/pianohistory.html>